Fossils/Plants

Main article: Fossils

Organisms in the kingdom Plantae are said to be plants. Plants make a majority of their energy through photosynthesis, and many of them reproduce through seeds (though there are some such as mosses and ferns that reproduce via spores). Many plant fossils will be in the form of leaves, though some fossils may feature the bark or a branch of a tree. Lepidodendron is one such fossil that is frequently identified by its bark as opposed to its leaves.

Flowering Plants (Phylum Anthophyta)

Picture(s)	File:Anthophyta.jpg
Common Names	angiosperm, flowering plant
Physical Description	Also known as Magnoliophyta, Anthophyta are vascular plants which produce seeds with a fruit. Another characteristic is the production of flowers. Their seeds contain an endosperm which provides nutrients to the embryo. Because of these distinguishing characteristics, they are the most diverse and numerous land plants.
Fossil Range	Cretaceous to recent
Taxonomy	Kingdom: Plantae, Clade: Tracheophytes, Clade: Spermatophytes
Mode of Life or Habitat	photosynthetic; produce flowers and fruits
Adaptations Over Time	endosperm within seeds, fruit covers seeds to provide nutrients/get dispersed by animals
Distribution	worldwide
Etymology	"fruiting plant"
Additional Information	very economically useful; provides food (nearly all agriculture is dependent on angiosperms), wood, paper, cotton, medicine, flowers for ornamental/decoration. Also culturally significant
External Links	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthophyta, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flowering_plant

Genus Acer (Maple)

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Common Names	Maples
Physical Description	Maple leaves are palmate, with each of the five lobes spreading from the base of the leaf. Compared to a sycamore (Platanus) leaf, the lobes tend to be more rounded and less spread out. The way the leaf attaches to the stem is also different - in the sycamore, the leaf simply fans out from the stem but in the maple the lobes tend to have more of a curve instead of extending straight from a point. Another difference between the two genera is the edges of the leaves - many sycamore leaves will have serrated or otherwise spiked edges, and this is less common (though not impossible) in maples. Despite many common differences, some specimen are very difficult to differentiate on leaves alone. One of the most reliable ways to differentiate the two is that sycamore leaves have three main veins that branch into the two side veins, while the main veins in maple leaves are separate. There are approxinately 132 species in Acer.
Fossil Range	Paleocene to Recent
Taxonomy	Kingdom: Plantae Clade: Tracheophytes Clade: Angiosperms Clade: Eudicots Clade: Rosids Order: Sapindales Family: Sapindaceae Subfamily: Hippocastanoideae
Mode of Life or Habitat	Modern maple trees are very hardy, and can grow in a wide variety of conditions. However, they thrive in cool and wet conditions (which is why they are so prevalent in the north and northeast parts of the globe). Maple trees can also survive in a variety of light conditions, with maples in cool climates preferring full sun. However, in warm climates they prefer partial shade as too much sun exposure can result in wilting.
Adaptations Over Time	As maple trees are typically deciduous, they drop their leaves in the wintertime which allows them to remain dormant and conserve energy. Maple tree seeds also have wing-like structures called samaras, allowing the seeds to travel far from predators or other harm. Many of the root systems are typically dense and fibrous, inhibiting the growth of other vegetation underneath them. This also allows the roots to spread out, gathering water more efficiently.
Distribution	Many extant species are found in Asia, though some are also found in Europe, North America, and northern Africa. Typically, these species are only found in the northern hemisphere (though there are some exceptions). Fossils of this genus seem to follow the same distribution, being found primarily in the northern hemisphere.
Etymology	First called "mapole" in 1260. Acer is Lain for sharp, referring to sharp lobes.
Additional Information	Acer is an extant genus of angiosperms, also known as flowering plants. Most maples are trees growing to a height of 10–45 m (33–148 ft). Others are shrubs less than 10 meters tall with a number of small trunks originating at ground level. Most species are deciduous, and many are renowned for their autumn leaf color, but a few in southern Asia and the Mediterranean region are evergreen. Most are shade-tolerant when young and are often riparian, understory, or pioneer species rather than climax overstory trees. However, there are a few exceptions (such as the sugar maple). They are prized for their sap and autumn colors, as well as bonsai and wood. It is also a symbol for Canada.
External Links	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maple

Genus Populus (Aspen & Poplar)

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Common Names	poplar, aspen, cottonwood
Physical Description	The leaves are or heart shaped with serrations along the edges and have flat petioles (or leaf stalks). They are dioecious, male and female flowers grow on different trees. Their blooming flowers form catkins, which are small vertical clusters of petal-less flowers, these help facilitate wind pollination.
Fossil Range	58-0 mya
Taxonomy	Kingdom: Plantae Clade: Tracheophytes Clade: Angiosperms Clade: Eudicots Clade: Rosids Order: Malpigiales Family: Salicaceae Subfamily: Saliceae
Mode of Life or Habitat	photosynthesizers
Adaptations Over Time	leaves are spirally arranged with a long petiole. Leaves often turn yellow or gold in the fall. Flowers are mostly dioecious and are pollinated by wind. Seeds have long white hairs to help with wind dispersal.
Distribution	Northern Hemisphere
Etymology	name Populus refers to the fact that the trees were often planted around public meeting places in Roman times
Additional Information	Populus is an extant genus of deciduous tree-like flowering plants (aspen trees, poplar trees). The genus has a large genetic diversity, and can grow from 15–50 m (49–164 ft) tall, with trunks up to 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in) in diameter. Populus is indigenous to much of the northern hemisphere. There is a large genetic diversity. They are important for the growth and development of several Lepidoptera species, and have significant economic uses.
External Links	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populus

Genus Platanus (Sycamore)

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Common Names	Sycamores/plane trees.
Physical Description	Most species of Platanus are tall, reaching between 100 and 150 feet tall. Most species of Platanus are deciduous, but Platanus Kerrii is evergreen. Most plane trees grow in areas of high water content, such as a wetland. They have, however, been found to be drought-tolerant. Trees are monoecious with reduced flowers borne in balls. Flowers are wind-pollinated and become achenes that form an aggregate ball afterward. Seeds are dispersed by the wind. Leaves are alternate and simple, and palmately shaped. The bark peels off easily in patches, leaving a mottled appearance.
Fossil Range	Late Cretaceous-Present
Taxonomy	Kingdom: Plantae Clade: Tracheophytes Clade: Angiosperms Clade: Eudicots Order: Proteales Family: Platanaceae
Mode of Life or Habitat	photosynthesizers
Adaptations Over Time	wind pollinated. Each achene has a tuft of bristle fibers attached to help with wind dispersion.
Distribution	Riparian/other wetland habitats.
Etymology	Ancient Greek name for Platanus orientalis.
Additional Information	Commonly mistaken for Acer, a similar genus of trees. One surefire way to tell the two apart would be to look at the way the veins of the leaves branch. All Platanus leaves will have 3 main veins that branch into two separate veins, and Acer does not have these branching veins.
External Links	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platanus

Ginkgoes (Phylum Ginkgophyta)

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Common Names	ginkgo
Physical Description	Phylum with only one extant species (Ginkgo biloba).
Fossil Range	Carboniferous-present
Taxonomy	Kingdom: Plantae Clade: Tracheophytes Division (Phylum): Ginkgophyta
Mode of Life or Habitat	Photosynthesizers
Etymology	based on ginkgo (see below)
Additional Information	only one extant species
External Links	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ginkgoopsida

Genus Ginkgo

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Common Names	Ginkgo
Physical Description	Non-Flowering Seed Plants
Fossil Range	Jurassic - Present, maximum diversity was reached in the cretaceous, Ginkgo was reduced to a single polymorphic species in the paleocene. It disappeared from the north american fossil record 7 mya.
Taxonomy	Kingdom: Plantae Clade: Tracheophytes Division (Phylum): Ginkgophyta Class: Ginkgoopsida Order: Ginkgoales Family: Ginkgoaceae
Mode of Life or Habitat	Photosynthesizer
Adaptations Over Time	Pollution tolerant. Insect tolerant, disease resistant.
Distribution	Australia, Africa, South America
Etymology	Japanese gin kyo meaning silver apricot. Also spelled as gingko.
Additional Information	Very slow rate of evolution. Only 1 extant species: Ginkgo Biloba, which is found in China. Considered a "living fossil" or a "Lazarus Taxon". In young stages of life Ginkgo plants would grow taller very quickly before branching out and thickening. They were able to survive in China until modern day. In 1100 AD they were cultivated by Buddhist monks(Zhejiang province) and were brought to Europe and America in the 1700s. These trees are present in many American cities today.
External Links	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ginkgo

Club Mosses (Division Lycopodiophyta)

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Common Names	Club Mosses
Physical Description	Reproduce by spores, have alternation of generations.
Fossil Range	Silurian - Present (Extant)
Taxonomy	Kingdom: Plantae Clade: Tracheophytes Clade: Lycophytes
Mode of Life or Habitat	Photosynthesizer
Distribution	North America, South America, Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia
Etymology	Translingual: "lukos" wolf and "phyte" plant
Additional Information	Reproduce Using Spores.
External Links	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lycophyte

Genus Lepidodendron (scale tree)

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Common Names	Scale Trees
Physical Description	primitive lycopodian vascular plants. Their bark was covered in diamond shaped leaf-bases from where leaves grew out from. They are more closely related to quillworts.
Fossil Range	Early Carboniferous - Late Triassic
Taxonomy	Kingdom: Plantae Clade: Tracheophytes Clade: Lycophytes Class: Lycopodiopsida Order: Lepidodendrales Family: Lepidodendraceae
Mode of Life or Habitat	Photosynthesizer
Adaptations Over Time	They benefited from their lack of branches at lower heights because it allowed them to more densly populate an area.
Distribution	North America, Europe, and Asia
Etymology	Greek: "lepis" scale and dendron "tree" The name scale tree comes from the leaf scars found on their bark which look like scales. As the trees grew they likely shed their lower leaves creating the characteristic scale pattern.
Additional Information	Displayed constant dichotomy, meaning that whenever the tree splits in to 2 branches, those branches would be evenly sized. Grew extremely fast and tall, reaching heights of up to 160 feet in a lifespan of 10-15 years. Susceptible to fungal parasites. Most commonly found in the Carboniferous period, specifically the Pennsylvanian. The roots displayed dichotomy. These plants likely also had a symbiotic relationship with mycorrhizal fungi, which lived in the roots and improved nutrient and water uptake. At the tips of the branches were cones that produced spores. It is thought that lepidodendron was monocarpic, it died after reproducing one time. Some scientists even hypothesize that each generation reproduced and died all at around the same times. These plants became so efficient that CO2 levels plummeted and caused an ice age at the end of the carboniferous(Karoo Ice Age).
External Links	https://www.indefenseofplants.com/blog/2018/11/13/the-rise-and-fall-of-the-scale-trees https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lepidodendron

Conifers (Phylum Pinophyta)

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Common Names	Coniferous trees.
Physical Description	cone-bearing seed plants. Mostly trees. They dominate the taiga of the northern hemisphere.
Fossil Range	Carboniferous - Recent
Taxonomy	Kingdom: Plantae Clade: Tracheophytes Clade: Spermatophytes
Mode of Life or Habitat	Photosynthesizer
Adaptations Over Time	Many contain resin to protect against insects and infection, and are shaped to help shed snow. They alter their biochemistry to produce natural antifreeze, helpful during the cold winters. Leaves are shaped to maximize light absorption for photosynthesis. They are wind-pollinated.
Distribution	Common in the northern hemisphere, particularly at middle-high latitudes.
Etymology	Greek: "Pinus" (Genus of Pines)
Additional Information	Within this phylum are Cedars, Cypresses, Pines, Hemlocks, Redwoods, and more. This phylum makes up the largest of the world's carbon sinks. Have faced considerable logging efforts for soft lumber. Most are monoecious, but some members are dioecious.
External Links	Gardenology: Pinophytahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conifer

Genus Metasequoia

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Common Names	Dawn Redwood
Physical Description	one of the three species known as redwoods. Grows to at least 165 ft (50 m) tall. Similar bark and foliate to Sequoia, but is deciduous. It is fast growing. Leaves are opposite, 1-3 cm long, and turn reddish-brown in the fall. Cones are globose-oviod, 1.5-2.5 cm in diameter and mature 8-9 months after pollination.
Fossil Range	Late Cretaceous - Recent (Extant)
Taxonomy	Kingdom: Plantae Clade: Tracheophytes Phylum (Division): Pinophyta Class: Pinopsida Order: Pinales Family: Cupressaceae Subfamily: Sequoioideae
Mode of Life or Habitat	Photosynthesizer
Adaptations Over Time	Deciduous. It evolved because of unusual light availability patterns.
Distribution	Northern hemisphere. Currently found in China, Fossils of Metasequoia(rediscovered in 1944) have been found in North America and Europe. It is the state fossil of Oregon. It is planted as a street tree in many urban places like London and New York City.
Etymology	Name is derived from Greek
Additional Information	Metasequoia (dawn redwoods) is a deciduous tree, which is known to grow relatively quickly. Certain species of Metasequia have been known to reach heights of above 165 feet, which is actually among the shortest redwoods in the world. They were thought to be extinct until M. glyptostroboides was discovered in China. Metasequoia has not evolved at all in the last 65 million years, they are seen today exactly as they were 65 million years ago.
External Links	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metasequoia

Horsetails (Phylum Sphenophyta)

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Common Names	Horsetails
Fossil Range	Devonian-Recent (Extant)
Taxonomy	Kingdom: Plantae
Mode of Life or Habitat	Photosynthesizer
Etymology	Greek: "Wedge" and Latin: "Plant"
External Links	Known to inhabit wetlands and other areas with high levels of precipitation.

Genus Calamites (form leaf genus: Annularia)

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Common Names	Horsetails
Fossil Range	Carboniferous - Early Permian
Taxonomy	Kingdom: Plantae Clade: Tracheophytes Phylum: Polypodiopsida Class: Equisetidae Order: Equisetales Family: Calamitaceae
Mode of Life or Habitat	Photosynthesizer
Distribution	Europe, Asia, North America
Etymology	Latin: "Sweet Flag"
Additional Information	Grew to heights of anywhere from 30-50 meters. Played a large part in the creation of the coal swamps of the Carboniferous period, particularly on the continents of Europe and Asia. The trunks of Calamites much resembled that of modern day bamboo. This made the trunks of Calamites very brittle. Reproduced using auxospores. One common type of calamite fossils are called pith casts. This is when the inside of the trunk becomes filled with sediment. The actual trunk is a few inches thicker than the internal cast due to the presence of vascular tissue which was not fossilized. The diameter gets smaller when the trunk attatches to a rhizoid. Calamites have secondary xylem(wood)they also have unifacial cambium, this only produces xylem not phloem, which may pose a problem to larger plants.
External Links	Information and Gallery of Calamites

Genus Annularia

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Common Names	Horsetail
Fossil Range	Carboniferous
Taxonomy	Kingdom: Plantae Clade: Tracheophytes Phylum: Polypodiopsida Class: Equisetidae Order: Equisetales Family: Calamitaceae
Mode of Life or Habitat	Photosynthesizer
Distribution	Europe, North America, Asia
Etymology	Greek: "Fruiting Plant"
Additional Information	Annularia is a form taxon, applied to fossil foliage belonging to extinct plants of the genus Calamites in the order Equisetales. Annularia leaves are arranged in whorls of between 8-15 leaves. Its shape is quite variable, being oval in Annularia sphenophylloides and semilinear in Annularia radiata, but they are always flat and of varying lengths. Annularia only existed in the Carboniferous period, although they could've possibly existed in the Permian period.

Seed Ferns (Phylum Pteridospermatophyta)

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Common Names	Seed Ferns
Fossil Range	Devonian - Late Cretaceous
Taxonomy	Kingdom: Plantae
Mode of Life or Habitat	Photosynthesizer
Etymology	Greek: Seed Fern
Additional Information	Particularly abundant in the Carboniferous and Permian periods.

Genus Glossopteris

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Common Names	Seed Fern
Fossil Range	Permian
Taxonomy	Kingdom: Plantae Clade: Tracheophytes Phylum (Division): Pteridospermatophyta Order: Glossopteridales Family: Glossopteridaceae
Mode of Life or Habitat	Photosynthesizer
Distribution	Most commonly found in India. Also found in Africa (Madagascar specifically), Asia, South America, and Australia
Etymology	Greek: Tongue Fern
Additional Information	Glossopteris is the largest genus of seed ferns, containing about 15 species. Glossopteris could grow to 30 meters tall. It is unknown if Glossopteris was monoecious or dioecious. Glossopteris only existed in the Permian. It is also very important to the theory of past supercontinents, in that this was one of the fossils used to prove the Continental Drift hypothesis. Lived in the middle to high latitude areas of the world when it was extant.
External Links	Mindat Glossopteris (Disclaimer: Conflicting information)

True Ferns (Phylum Pteridophyta)

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Common Names	True Ferns
Fossil Range	Variable between taxons.
Taxonomy	Kingdom: Plantae
Mode of Life or Habitat	Photosynthesizers
Distribution	Variable between taxons
Etymology	Greek: Fern Plant
Additional Information	Vascular ferns. Reproduce using spores. Release either sperm or egg spores depending on where the individual plant is in its life cycle.

Genus Psaronius

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Common Names	Marattialean Tree Fern
Physical Description	A widely distributed tree fern from the Carboniferous period.
Fossil Range	Late Carboniferous - Late Permian
Taxonomy	Kingdom: Plantae Phylum (Division): Pteridophyta Class: Marattiopsida Order: Marattiales Family: Psaroniaceae
Mode of Life or Habitat	Photosynthesizer
Distribution	North America, Europe, Africa,Asia
Etymology	Greek: Precious Stone, also know as Staarsteine- star stone
Additional Information	The leaf genus for Psaronius is Pecopteris. By looking at the fossils of Psaronius root mantles, scientists have deduced that that vines and other plants were growing inside the root mantles of Psaronius plants. It could grow to be 10 or 15 meters high. Tree ferns, unlike gymnospermous and angiospermous did not have second growth (horizontal growth as opposed to vertical growth). Instead psaronius developed a false trunk. This trunk started out with a vascular strand as it grew upwards it would divide into different parts. While his was happening adventitious roots(roots that form from non-root tissue like the stem) grew forming a root mantle which provided stability. Leaves could be 2-3 meters long. Leafe scars would have been visible at the top of the tree because they had yet to be covered by the mantle.( this is one way you can tell what part of the tree a specimen comes from). Occasionally specimens of silicified trunks of Psaronius can be found, specifically in Chemnitz Germany. When polished these root mantles can make shapes that look like stars(hence the name star stone). The cellular structure is not preserved in the fossils. It may have had a symbiotic relationship with small ferns and horsetails that grew along the roots.
External Links	Elsevier Psaronius (PDF) https://steurh.home.xs4all.nl/engpsar/epsaron.html

Genus Pecopteris

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Common Names	Marattialean Fern
Physical Description	A fern with arranged leaflets to look like a comb, giving it the root word, comb fern.
Fossil Range	Late Devonian to Early Permian
Taxonomy	Kingdom: Plantae Phylum: Pteridophyta Class: Filicopsida Order: Marattiales Family: Marattiacaeae
Mode of Life or Habitat	Photosynthesizer
Distribution	South America, North America, Europe, Parts of Asia
Etymology	Comb Fern
Additional Information	Pecopteris is a very common form genus of leaves. Most Pecopteris leaves and fronds are associated with the marattialean tree fern Psaronius. Pecopteris first appeared in the Devonian period, but flourished in the Carboniferous, especially the Pennsylvanian. Plants bearing these leaves became extinct in the Permian period. It is the only true fern that humans know about. These leaves played an important role in shaping paleoecosystems. The fallen leaves created dirt, allowing trees to expand further inland. They could have as many as 7000 spores on the underside of their leaves.