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Froggie wrote:

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Mating occurs in the late summer, fall, and possibly into early winter in some places. The male courts the female first by rubbing his nose on the female's nose, then he will circle around her with his tail bend at a sharp right angle. At some point the female straddles the male's tail and presses her snout on the base of his tail. Eventually the male starts moving forward, undulating his tail, and begins depositing spermatophores, while the female follows him at a close distance. The spermatophores are a jelly-like glob that are about 2mm wide at the base and tapers to a thin stalk, which is topped with a yellowish sperm cap. The female picks up the spermatophores and deposits them into her cloaca while pressing her snout against the male's tail. This "straddle walk" lasts for up to 20 minutes (Harding 1997, Petranka 1998).

Female four-toed salamanders migrate to nesting sites primarily from the last week of March through the second week of April, but may wait until as late as early June. Oviposition occurs from mid to late April in Michigan, but can occur as late as February in southern Alabama. Females seek out moss clumps that are just above a pool of water usually in swamps, bogs, marshes, vernal ponds, and slow moving streams. The nesting medium is usually raised clumps of sphagnum moss, but leaf litter, rotting logs, or grass and sedge clumps are also used. The female then locates or constructs a cavity to deposit her eggs, which takes several minutes for each one and may take several hours for the whole clutch. The eggs have a sticky outer coating, which she uses to adhere to the surrounding moss. Fifteen to 80 eggs, each between 2.5 and 3.0 mm in diameter, are laid. More eggs tend to be laid by larger females (Harding 1997, Oliver 1955, Petranka 1998). Females often share nests and as many as 1110 eggs have been found in a single nest (Blanchard 1934). Nest availability is thought to be a factor in this communal nesting behavior (Breitenbach 1982). Often one or more (usually one) female will stay with the nest for a period, but they are usually gone by hatching. Despite a lack of defensive behavior toward invading predators, the female's nest attendance has been found to increase embryo survival (Carreno and Harris 1998). It is believed that the mother's skin secretions may protect the eggs by impeding fungus growth. So far, no beneficial link has been established between joint nesting and embryo survival (Harris and Gill 1980). The incubation period varies from 38 to 62 days depending upon the region and local site conditions. Average survivorship after hatching has been estimted at 9 and 21 percent (Harding 1997, Petranka 1998).

After hatching the larva wiggle from their nest and drop into the nearby water. They are only about 1.1 to 1.4 cm total body length at birth. During this larval stage they feed primarily on zooplankton and other invertebrates. Their larval period lasts between 23-39 days, which is brief compared to other amphibians. At transformation they are only 1.7 to 2.5 cm total body length (Harding 1997, Petranka 1998). The sex ratio of juveniles is nearly equal (Blanchard 1935).

It takes between two and three years for H. scutatum to reach sexual maturity. Captive specimens have lived as long as nine years but it is unknown how long free-ranging individuals may survive (Harding 1997).

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platypusomelette wrote:

Froggie wrote:

This (Click to Show Hidden Text)

Mating occurs in the late summer, fall, and possibly into early winter in some places. The male courts the female first by rubbing his nose on the female's nose, then he will circle around her with his tail bend at a sharp right angle. At some point the female straddles the male's tail and presses her snout on the base of his tail. Eventually the male starts moving forward, undulating his tail, and begins depositing spermatophores, while the female follows him at a close distance. The spermatophores are a jelly-like glob that are about 2mm wide at the base and tapers to a thin stalk, which is topped with a yellowish sperm cap. The female picks up the spermatophores and deposits them into her cloaca while pressing her snout against the male's tail. This "straddle walk" lasts for up to 20 minutes (Harding 1997, Petranka 1998).

Female four-toed salamanders migrate to nesting sites primarily from the last week of March through the second week of April, but may wait until as late as early June. Oviposition occurs from mid to late April in Michigan, but can occur as late as February in southern Alabama. Females seek out moss clumps that are just above a pool of water usually in swamps, bogs, marshes, vernal ponds, and slow moving streams. The nesting medium is usually raised clumps of sphagnum moss, but leaf litter, rotting logs, or grass and sedge clumps are also used. The female then locates or constructs a cavity to deposit her eggs, which takes several minutes for each one and may take several hours for the whole clutch. The eggs have a sticky outer coating, which she uses to adhere to the surrounding moss. Fifteen to 80 eggs, each between 2.5 and 3.0 mm in diameter, are laid. More eggs tend to be laid by larger females (Harding 1997, Oliver 1955, Petranka 1998). Females often share nests and as many as 1110 eggs have been found in a single nest (Blanchard 1934). Nest availability is thought to be a factor in this communal nesting behavior (Breitenbach 1982). Often one or more (usually one) female will stay with the nest for a period, but they are usually gone by hatching. Despite a lack of defensive behavior toward invading predators, the female's nest attendance has been found to increase embryo survival (Carreno and Harris 1998). It is believed that the mother's skin secretions may protect the eggs by impeding fungus growth. So far, no beneficial link has been established between joint nesting and embryo survival (Harris and Gill 1980). The incubation period varies from 38 to 62 days depending upon the region and local site conditions. Average survivorship after hatching has been estimted at 9 and 21 percent (Harding 1997, Petranka 1998).

After hatching the larva wiggle from their nest and drop into the nearby water. They are only about 1.1 to 1.4 cm total body length at birth. During this larval stage they feed primarily on zooplankton and other invertebrates. Their larval period lasts between 23-39 days, which is brief compared to other amphibians. At transformation they are only 1.7 to 2.5 cm total body length (Harding 1997, Petranka 1998). The sex ratio of juveniles is nearly equal (Blanchard 1935).

It takes between two and three years for H. scutatum to reach sexual maturity. Captive specimens have lived as long as nine years but it is unknown how long free-ranging individuals may survive (Harding 1997).

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I'm sorry I was doing herpetology

Metal Calibration Charts (Samples only-may need to be modified depending on your instrumentation)

High-altitude (HA) environments have adverse effects on the normal functioning body of people accustomed to living at low altitudes because of the change in barometric pressure which causes decrease in the amount of oxygen leading to hypobaric hypoxia. Sustained exposure to hypoxia has adverse effects on body weight, muscle structure and exercise capacity, mental functioning, and sleep quality. The most important step of acclimatization is the hyperventilation which is achieved by hypoxic ventilatory response of the peripheral chemoreceptors. Hyperventilation results in increase in arterial carbondioxide concentration. Altitude also affects sleep and cardiac output, which is the other determinant of oxygen delivery. Upon initial exposure to HA, the resting pulse rate increases rapidly, but with acclimatization, heart rate and cardiac output tend to fall. Another important component that leads to decrease in cardiac output is the reduction in the stroke volume with acclimatization. During sleep at HA, the levels of CO2 in the blood can drop very low and this can switch off the drive to breathe. Only after the body senses a further drop in O2 levels breathing is started again. Periodic breathing is thought to result from instability in the control system through the hypoxic drive or the response to CO2.

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